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A Small Dose of Animal and Plant Toxins
- An Introduction to the Health Effects of Animal and Plant Toxins
- Ancient Greek Athletes - "The Greek physician Galen is reputed to have prescribed 'the rear hooves of an Abyssinian ass, ground up, boiled in oil, and flavored with rose hips and rose petals' to improve performance."
- 399 BCE Death of Socrates by Hemlock Charged with religious heresy and corrupting the morals of local youth. Active chemical is the alkaloid coniine which when ingested causes paralysis, convulsions and potentially death.
- Bee Stings - A honey bee has about 150µg of poison, but only a small fraction is typically injected. The faster the stinger is removed the less the response.
Animal and Plant Toxins Dossier
Dossier - Animal Toxin
- Name: Animal Venoms and Poisons
- Use: medicinal uses
- Source: spiders, insects, snakes, lizards, fish, and frogs
- Recommended daily intake: none (not essential)
- Absorption: varies but can be very fast, e.g. bites
- Sensitive individuals: children (small size), previously sensitized
- Toxicity/symptoms: varies
- Regulatory facts: none
- General facts: long history of use and desire to avoid, often accompanied by fear of the animal
- Environmental: global distribution, concern about expanding distribution to new areas
- Recommendations: follow precautions for avoiding contact
Dossier - Pant Toxin
- Name: Plant
- Use: medicinal uses
- Source: wide variety of plants
- Recommended daily intake: none (not essential)
- Absorption: intestine, skin
- Sensitive individuals: children (small size), previously sensitized
- Toxicity/symptoms: varies
- Regulatory facts: none
- General facts: long history of use and desire to avoid
- Environmental: global distribution, concern about expanding distribution to new areas
- Recommendations: generally avoid; know the poisonous plants in area
Animal and Plant Toxins Chapter
PowerPoint presentation
Arachnids (Scorpions, Spiders, Ticks)
Class |
Examples |
Delivery & Venom |
Comments |
|---|---|---|---|
Arachnids (scorpions & spiders & ticks) |
Scorpions |
Stinger - neurotoxin, no enzymes |
Localized pain, mostly dangerous to children |
|
Latrodectus - Widow spiders (back, brown red-legged spider) |
Bite - neurotoxin - large molecular proteins |
Localized pain, sweating, muscle cramps, decreased blood pressure |
|
Loxosceles - Brown or Violin Spiders |
Bite - complex mixture of enzymes |
Serious tissue damage & attacks blood cells |
|
Ticks |
Bite - saliva neurotoxin - transmit other diseases |
Tick paralysis - weakness & difficulty walking - Remove tick |
Insects
Examples |
Poison or Venom |
Comments |
|---|---|---|
Moths and caterpillars |
Irritating substance |
Designed so they do not taste good |
Ants |
Variable - proteins, formic acid and other |
Variable response - irritation, allergic response, tissue damage |
Honey bees |
Complex proteins |
Swelling, allergic reaction |
Wasps |
Formic acid |
Irritating |
Reptiles
Class |
Examples |
Venom & Delivery |
Symptoms |
|---|---|---|---|
Vipers (Viperidae) |
Rattlesnakes, Water moccasins, Copperheads, Bushmasters |
Very complex enzymatic based, advanced delivery - hinged tubular fangs |
Swelling & necrosis at site, affects blood cells, hemorrhage, decreased blood pressure, shock |
Elapidae |
Cobras, Kraits, Coral Snakes |
Neurotoxin (some very potent) Fixed fangs, usually low dose |
Nervous system effects, paralysis, numbness, respiratory failure |
Marine Animals
Animal Class |
Examples |
Toxin |
Symptoms |
Comment |
|---|---|---|---|---|
Shellfish (filter-feeding mollusks) |
Mussels, clams, oysters, scallops |
Several kinds of toxin taken up from plankton (dinoflagellate) |
See below |
|
|
Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning (PSP) |
saxitoxin in their muscles |
Numbness, respiratory paralysis |
Na channel permeability |
|
Diarrheic Shellfish Poisoning (DSP) |
high molecular weight polyethers |
Nausea, vomiting, diarrhea |
Usually mild but annoying |
|
Neurotoxic Shellfish Poisoning (NSP) |
brevetoxins |
Numbness of mouth, muscular aches, dizziness |
|
|
Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning (ASP) |
domoic acid |
Confusion, memory loss, seizure, coma |
Affects elderly |
Coelenterates |
Jelly fish, anemona, coral |
nematocyst |
sting, muscle cramps |
|
Fish |
Sea Snail (cigua) and some fish, oysters and clams |
Ciguatera, scaritoxin and maitotoxin |
Numbness, salivation, cardiovascular effects, respiratory paralysis |
inhibits acetyl cholinesterase |
Fish |
Puffer Fish (fugu, blowfish, toadfish ... some frogs, starfish, octopus |
tetrodotoxin |
Nervous system Numbness, paralysis, respiratory failure, death |
Decreased Na channel permeability |
Fish |
Tuna, shark, sword fish |
Mercury (toxicant) |
Neurotoxic, reproductive effects |
Not produced by fish itself, concentrated in muscle |
Effects on Skin
Organ System |
Symptoms |
Plant Examples |
Toxin / Comment |
|---|---|---|---|
Skin |
Allergic Dermatitis - Plant - Rashes, itchy skin |
Philodendron, poison ivy, cashew, bulbs of daffodils, hyacinths, tulips |
Antibody mediated after initial sensitization, very variable response. Allergens located on outer cells of plant |
|
Allergic Dermatitis - Pollen - Sniffles & sneezing, runny eyes |
Ragweed (North America), Mugwort (Europe), grasses |
Antibody mediated - Pollen widely distributed in air. Very common, can be debilitating |
|
Contact Dermatitis, Oral - Swelling and inflammation of mouth, skin - pain & stinging sensation |
Dumb cane (Dieffenbachia), Nettles (Urtica) |
Calcium oxalate crystals coated with inflammatory proteins, Fine tubes contain histamine, acetylcholine and serotonin |
Gastrointestinal System
Organ System |
Symptoms |
Plant Examples |
Toxin / Comment |
|---|---|---|---|
Gastrointestinal |
Direct stomach irritation - Nausea, vomiting and diarrhea |
California buckthorn (sacred bark), tung nut, horse chestnut, pokeweed ... |
Emodin & esculine (toxins); Oil from seeds, nuts; some medical uses, Children are most often affected |
|
Antimitotic (stops cell division) - Nausea, vomiting, confusion, delirium |
Lily family, glory lily, crocus, may apple |
Colchicine (gout treatment) |
|
Lectin toxicity - nausea, diarrhea, headache, confusion, dehydration, death |
Wisteria, castor bean (Ricinus communis) |
Lectins bind to cell surfaces, Ricin - block protein synthesis, very toxic: 5 to 6 beans can kill a child |
Cardiovascular System
Organ System |
Symptoms |
Plant Examples |
Toxin / Comment |
|---|---|---|---|
Cardiovascular |
Digitalis-like glycosides - cardiac arrhythmias |
Foxglove (Digitalis purpurea), squill, lily of the valley |
Contain glycosides that are similar to digitalis:scillaren, convallatoxin |
|
Heart nerves - decreased heart rate and blood pressure, general weakness |
Lily, hellebore, death camas, heath family, monkshood, rhododendron |
Alkaloids, aconitum, grayanotoxin (concentrated in honey) |
|
Blood vessel constriction (vasoconstriction) |
Mistletoe (berries contain toxin) |
Holy or demonic - effects on heart first described in 1597. Toxin is called phoratoxin. |
Nervous system
Organ System |
Symptoms |
Plant Examples |
Toxin / Comment |
|---|---|---|---|
Nervous System |
Seizures |
Water hemlock, (parsley family), mint family |
Cicutoxin - affects potassium channels. Monoterpenes in mint oils |
|
Stimulation - Excitatory Amino Acids - headache, confusion, hallucinations |
Red alga (red tide), Green alga, Mushrooms- Amanita family (fly agaric), Flat Pea (Lathyrus) |
Kainic acid, domoic acid-concentrated in shell fish, Ibotenic acid, muscarinic, (hallucinations), Latthyrism - motor neuron degeneration |
|
Aberrant behavior, very excitable, muscle weakness, death |
Locoweed - Australian & Western U.S. plant |
Swainsonine toxin - liver enzyme inhibitor - well known to affect cattle |
|
Stimulation |
Coffee bean, tea, cola nut, |
Caffeine, most widely consumed stimulant in the world |
|
Neurotoxic - death |
Poison hemlock (Conium maculatum) |
Coniine - neurotoxic alkaloid - Poison used by Socrates |
|
Paralysis - demyelination of peripheral nerves |
Buckthorn, coyotillo, tullidora, (U.S., Mexico) |
Anthracenones - attack the myelin that surrounds the peripheral nerves |
|
Atropine-like effects - dry mouth, dilated pupils, confusion, hallucinations, memory lose |
Solanaceae family - jimsonweed, henbane, deadly nightshade (Atropa belladonna), angles trumpet (atropine and scopolamine) |
Clinical effects of many of the plants recognized since ancient times. Deaths are rare but children vulnerable. |
|
Neuromuscular - mild stimulation to muscle paralysis, respiratory failure (curare), death |
Tobacco - South American - Strychnos family (curare), Blue green alga (anatonin A) |
Nicotine -blocks acetylcholine receptors, Curare - used as a hunting poison very potent receptor blocker |
Liver
Organ System |
Symptoms |
Plant Examples |
Toxin / Comment |
|---|---|---|---|
Liver |
"Hepatitis" and cirrhosis of liver - From contaminated grain |
Ragwort or groundsel |
Pyrrolizidine alkaloids - attack liver vessels - effects humans, cattle but some species resistant |
|
Liver failure and death |
Mushrooms - "Death cap" (Amanita phalloides) |
Amatoxin and phalloidin effects RNA and protein synthesis |
|
Liver cancer |
Fungus that grows on peanuts, walnuts, etc... |
Alfaltoxins- produced by fungus in poorly stored grain |
Reproductive Effects
Organ System |
Symptoms |
Plant Examples |
Toxin / Comment |
|---|---|---|---|
Reproductive Effects |
Teratogen - malformations in offspring (sheep) |
Veratrum californicum - native to North America |
Veratrum - blocks cholesterol synthesis - seen offspring of mountain sheep |
|
Abortifacients - cause fetal abortions |
Legumes (Astrogalus), Bitter melon seeds (Momordica) |
Swainsonine toxin - stops cell division, Lectins - halt protein synthesis- used by humans |
More Information and References
European, Asian, and international Agencies
- Amphibians and Reptiles of Europe (accessed: 16 June 2009).
A large sample of European Amphibians and Reptiles.
North American Agencies
- Society For The Study Of Amphibians And Reptiles (SSAR) (accessed: 16 June 2009).
SSAR, a not-for-profit organization established to advance research, conservation, and education concerning amphibians and reptiles.
- Health Canada - Natural Health Products Directorate (accessed: 16 June 2009).
Natural Health Products Directorate works to "ensure that all Canadians have ready access to natural health products that are safe, effective, and of high quality, while respecting freedom of choice and philosophical and cultural diversity".
- U.S. Food and Drug Administration Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition (accessed: 16 June 2009).
Site has information on seafood health and safety issues.
- Northwest Fisheries Science Center's (NWFSC) Harmful Algal Bloom Program (accessed: 16 June 2009).
NWFSC Harmful Algal Bloom Program, part of the U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, provides information related to algal blooms.
- U.S. Food & Drug Administration Center for Food Safety & Applied Nutrition Foodborne Pathogenic Microorganisms and Natural Toxins Handbook - The "Bad Bug Book" (accessed: 16 June 2009).
The "Bad Bug Book" contains extensive information on natural toxins either on the web or book can be downloaded.
Non-Government Organizations
- Natural Toxins Research Center (NTRC) - Texas A&M University System (accessed: 16 June 2009).
NTRC provides global research, training, and resources that will lead to the discovery of medically important toxins found in snake venoms.
- Cornell University - Plants Poisonous to Livestock (accessed: 16 June 2009).
This is "includes plant images, pictures of affected animals and presentations concerning the botany, chemistry, toxicology, diagnosis and prevention of poisoning of animals by plants and other natural flora (fungi, etc.)".
- Alternative Medicine Foundation, Inc, HerbMed® (accessed: 16 June 2009).
"HerbMed® - an interactive, electronic herbal database - provides hyperlinked access to the scientific data underlying the use of herbs for health. It is an evidence-based information resource for professionals, researchers, and general public."
- American Association of Poison Control Centers (AAPCC) (accessed: 16 June 2009).
The AAPCC is a United States based organization of poison centers and interested individuals that coordinates information on common poisons.
- The Vaults of Erowid (accessed: 16 June 2009).
The Vaults of Erowid web site contains information on wide variety of natural plants and chemicals.
References
- Handbook of Clinical Toxicology of Animal Venoms and Poisons
by J. Meier (Editor), Julian White (Editor), Informa HealthCare, 768 pages, 1995.
- Venomous and Poisonous Animals: A Handbook for Biologists, Toxicologists and Toxinologists, Physicians and Pharmacists. by Dietrich Mebs, Medpharm 360 pages, 2002.
- MMWR (1997). Amanita phalloides Mushroom Poisoning - Northern California, June 6, 1997, Vol 46(22), p 489-491. (accessed: 16 June 2009).
- MMWR (2002). Neurologic Illness Associated with Eating Florida Pufferfish, 2002., April 19, 2002, Vol 51(15), p 321-323. (accessed: 16 June 2009).
- MMWR (1995). Epidemiologic Notes and Reports Jimson Weed Poisoning – Texas, New York, and California, 1994. January 27, 1995, Vol 44(3), p 41-44. (accessed: 16 June 2009).
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